Eric Sommer
There are three broad modes by which people may cooperate in the labour which produces the ‘goods’ of life. In addition to the two modes of co-operation already touched on, planning and market, there is a third mode which is sometimes called ‘informal reciprocity’ or ‘mutual aid’. Before we can consider these three modes of cooperation or social labour, however, we need to be clear on the nature of what is being co-ordinated. We need, that is, to examine the nature of ‘labour’. By ‘Labour’, then, I mean ‘any conscious action intended to elicit a particular potentiality from the world. Baking bread is labour, in that it elicits the potentiality to convert flour into bread. Studying is labour, in that it imparts knowledge to the student. Performing primal therapy is labour in that it elicits the potentiality for healing. Prayer is labour, in that it elicits the power of the sacred.
As for ‘co-operation’, or ‘social labour’, it may be thought of as ‘any utilization of the actions or behavior of two or more actors to elicit a particular potentiality from the world’.
The first form of cooperation or social labour is ‘simple combination’ which is not yet division of labour. ‘Simple combination’ involves coordinated effort by several people performing the same task. Several people pulling on the same rope; two people collaborating in moving a chair; a group raising their voices together in prayer or chant; or two people sparing or practicing martial arts together, are all examples of simple combination.
What might be called ‘rudimentary division of labour’ is a second kind of social labour. It involves people taking on different coordinated tasks or roles in conditions where each has the knowledge, skill, and ability to take on any of the tasks. Examples of ‘rudimentary division of labour’ are a group of skilled amateur baseball players playing particular positions, with each having equal ability to play any position; or one person agreeing to hoe the field while the other agrees to go to town on an errand, with both able to perform either task.
Finally, what might be called ‘developed division of labour’ involves acquisition of specialized skill, knowledge, and experience which equips each person especially to perform one task within the cooperative endeavor. A wheat farmer, for example, may develop specialized knowledge and ability to farm wheat, while a barley farmer develops specialized knowledge and ability to farm barley. Or consider the business accountant in an enterprise who has specialized accounting knowledge, while the mechanist in the enterprise has specialized knowledge not possessed by the accountant.
Now that we have examined the nature of labour, and viewed in very general terms the different ways in which it can be combined, we may return to the subject of the modes of labour cooperation. A ‘mode of co-operation’ is a ‘style’ or ‘form’ for co-ordinating the actions or behavior of actors to elicit particular potentialities. Three such modes or forms of cooperation are currently known to humanity. These three modes are ‘informal reciprocity’ or ‘mutual aid’, ‘market’, and ‘planning’. Jackie and Jennifer agree to meet for dinner at Bill’s Restaurant; this is planning. Jackie pays for dinner, in the quiet expectation that Jennifer will pay on some future occasion; this is informal reciprocity. Jackie and Jennifer pay for the dinner on the way out; this is market. All three of these modes of cooperation are ways of connecting the actions or labour of actors to achieve a consciously intended result.